Neanderthals and Denisovans

As we move forward within the genus Homo, ever closer to modern humans, we finally reach some

very familiar organisms. Neanderthals have long been considered the quintessential “cavemen”,

due in part to the fact that they were the first hominins discovered. The first neanderthal was

found in 1829, long before the publishing of Darwin’s seminal works “On the Origin of

Species” and “The Descent of Man”. These fossils were found in Engis, Belgium, and not long after

in 1848 and 1856, neanderthals from Gibraltar and the Neander valley would join the known fossil

record. At the time, these fossils were thought to be “antediluvian men”, or humans living before

the great flood of Genesis. It wasn’t until 1864, after Darwin published “On the Origin of Species”,

that these fossils were recognized as something distinct: Neanderthals, or Homo neanderthalensis.

Even still, Darwin himself barely referenced these hominins in “The Descent of Man” in

1871. Today we have the remains of hundreds of individuals and know quite a bit more about who

these hominins were and what they were like. Neanderthals have come a long way since their

discovery and unfortunate reputation as brutish and stupid cavemen. In the previous tutorial

we discussed how these hominins shared a common ancestor with modern humans that

lived in the rough range of 500 to 800 thousand years ago. We also discussed

how Homo erectus was capable of using many of the same technologies seen by archaic

Homo sapiens. Neanderthals essentially matched archaic Homo sapiens in technological prowess.

But before we discuss how Neanderthals lived, what makes them different from Homo sapiens?

Neanderthals have long been argued to be the “robust” and potentially cold-adapted version

of us. They are shorter and broader than Homo sapiens, weighing an average of 72.1

kilograms. Neanderthals lacked the long limbs of Homo sapiens, keeping in line with Allen and

Bergman’s expectations of cold-adapted species being large-bodied with shorter limbs. However,

generally their post-crania would be very similar to us, albeit less capable of long-distance

running. Neanderthals primarily differ from Homo sapiens in their skull. Neanderthal skulls

were long and low, characterized by a sloping forehead and the presence of an odd structure

on the occipital bone called an occipital bun. They had large brow ridges. They had zygomatics,

or cheek bones, that were swept backwards, exaggerating their already evident mid-facial

prognathism, and a retromolar gap. However, they also had a modern-looking hyoid bone,

suggesting that they would have been capable of speech. Neanderthals looked overall more “apish”

than Homo sapiens, but they actually had a larger brain than us, sporting a range of 1200-1740 cc’s.

However, bigger brains do not necessarily mean a smarter hominin. Neanderthals had a heavy

emphasis on the occipital lobe, the region of the brain responsible for vision. They would have had

incredible hand-eye coordination, but lacked the frontal lobe emphasis seen in humans that perhaps

gives us an edge with critical thinking, planning, and other executive functions. Nevertheless,

neanderthals were capable of a lot. Neanderthals used Mousterian tools, the first tool kit

associated with archaic Homo sapiens, and they may have used long range weapons. They used fire,

cooked their food, and have been argued to have additionally smoked, cured,

and fermented meat. Neanderthals buried their dead, adorning them with flowers and red ocre.

They wore clothes to combat the bitter cold of the steppes they often dwelled upon, and may have